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International Journal of Phytomedicine and Phytotherapy

Table 2 Mineral & Vitamin Deficiency Consequences

From: Rice: a potential vehicle for micronutrient fortification

Sr. No

Micronutrient

Consequences

Citation

1

Iron

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA), fatigue, neuromuscular symptoms, mental illness, epithelial manifestations, and cardiopulmonary symptoms

[81] (Soliman, Amer, & Soliman, 2019)

Anemia in hemodialysis patients

[82] (Motonishi, Tanaka, & Ozawa, 2018)

Negative symptoms in schizophrenia patients

[83] (Kim et al., 2018)

Anemia,

Plummer Vinson syndrome, angular stomatitis, pica, glossitis and restless leg syndrome most commonly in pregnant females

Cognitive impairment and behavioral problems in infants

[84] (Moll & Davis, 2017)

2

Zinc

Neuronal dysfunction, growth retardation, skin lesions (Acrodermatitis enteropathica, poor appetite, cell-mediated immune dysfunction and neurosensory disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Mood Disorders, such as depression, anxiety and aggression,

Schizophrenia (SCZ), and Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2

Hypogonadism in males

[85] (Hagmeyer, Haderspeck, & Grabrucker, 2015; Pfaender & Grabrucker, 2014; Prasad, 2013; Yasuda & Tsutsui, 2016)

Impairment, sexual dysfunction, cutaneous lesions, inflammatory and gastrointestinal disorders

[86] (Maxfield & Crane, 2020b)

Alopecia, diarrhea and impaired immune function in infants and children

[87, 88] (Ackland & Michalczyk, 2016; Kambe, Fukue, Ishida, & Miyazaki, 2015)

3

Calcium

Ca Paradox Disease that leads to muscular dystrophy, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, malignancy, arteriosclerosis and alzheimer’s disease

[89] (Fujita & Palmieri, 2000)

4

Vitamin D

Rickets, osteoporosis and osteomalacia

[90] (Glorieux & Pettifor, 2014)

5

Selenium

Keshan disease, Keshin-Beck disease and myxedematous cretinism

[91] (Westermark, 2021)

Epilepsy, multiminicore disease and cardiovascular disease (CVD)

[92] (Amankwah & Han, 2018)

Immune system disorders, inflammatory disorders, impaired fertility, cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes mellitus

[93] (Sarwar et al., 2020)

[94] (Kieliszek, Bano, & Zare, 2021)

6

Iodine

Endemic goiter

Mental manifestation, growth retardation and increased miscarriages during pregnancy

Hypothyroidism

[95] (Cakmak et al., 2017 [96]; Tulyathan, Laokuldilok, & Jongkaewwattana, 2007)

7

Vitamin A

Night blindness (nyctalopia)

Keratomalacia

Impaired immune functions

[97] (Norsa et al., 2019) [98] (Godswill, Somtochukwu, Ikechukwu, & Kate, 2020)

Lung dysfunction, pulmonary disease and respiratory diseases

Increased risk of asthma and severe wheezing

[99] (Timoneda et al., 2018)

8

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Beriberi (Korsakoff syndrome and Wernicke encephalopathy)

[100] (Wiley & Gupta, 2019)

9

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Normocytic anemia,

Angular cheilitis

Eye irritation and itching

Increased eye sensitivity to light

Watery eyes

[101] (Godswill et al., 2020)

10

Vitamin B3

(niacin)

Pellagra (4Ds: Dementia, Dermatitis, Diarrhea and Death)

[102] (López & Otero, 2021)

11

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid

Its deficiency is very rare

Apathy, fatigue and itchiness

[103] (Godswill et al., 2020)

12

Vitamin B6

Its deficiency is very rare

Electroencephalographic abnormalities

Impaired immune function and convulsive seizures

Depression

[104] (Parra, Stahl, & Hellmann, 2018)

13

Vitamin B7

(Biotin)

Its deficiency is rare

Detrimental effects on skin health and hair growth

[105] (Godswill et al., 2020)

14

Vitamin B9 (Folate)

Neural tube defects (NTDs) in infants

[106] (Moll & Davis, 2017)

15

Vitamin B12

(Cobalamins)

Megaloblastic anaemia

Neuropsychiatric manifestations

Ataxia, and cognitive decline

Atrophic glossitis

Infertility and persistent spontaneous abortions

Pernicious anaemia

[107] (Moll & Davis, 2017; Xie et al., 2021)

16

Vitamin C

(Ascorbic Acid)

Scurvy

[108] (Maxfield & Crane, 2020a)

17

Vitamin D

Rickets

[109, 110] (Allgrove & Shaw, 2015; Lin et al., 2020)

18

Vitamin E

Progressive neurologic disorder

Spinocerebellar ataxia

Heart muscle cardiomyopathy

[111, 112](Euch-Fayache, Bouhlal, Amouri, Feki, & Hentati, 2014; Traber, 2014)

19

Vitamin K

Fat malabsorption diseases (bleeding gums, nosebleeds, heavy menstrual bleeding in women, and sensitivity to bruising)

[113] (Haddadin et al., 2019)

Chronic kidney disease (CKD)

[114] (Cozzolino et al., 2019)